Lie

A lie is a statementwypowiedź, komunikat, stwierdzenie that is untrue, when the falsityfałsz, nieprawda of the statementwypowiedź, komunikat, stwierdzenie is known or suspected by the speaker. Depending on definitions, a lie can be a genuine falsehoodfałsz, fałszywość, kłamstwo or a selective truth, a lie by omissionpominięcie, or even the truth if the intention is to deceiveoszukiwać, wprowadzać w błąd or to cause an action not in the listener's interests. To lie is to tell a lie.

Morality of lying
Lying is against the moral standards of many people and is specifically prohibited as a singrzech in many religions. Ethical traditions and philosopers are divided over whether a lie is ever allowabledozwolony, dopuszczalny but are generally opposedprzecwiny - Plato said yes, whereaspodczas gdy Aristotle, Saint Augustine and Kant said no.

Lying in a way that escalatesto escalate: wzmagać, nasilać, wzrastać rather than de-escalatesto escalate: wzmagać, nasilać, wzrastać a conflict is usually considered the worst singrzech.

A liar is a person who is known to have a tendency to tell lies. People's tolerance for liars is generally very small, and it is often only necessary to be caught lying once to be labelledto label: przypiąć komuś etykietę as a liar and not trusted again. This is of course moderatedto moderate: hamować, spowalniać, łagodzić by the importance of the matter being lied about.

Paradoxically, a Big Lie is often easier to get people to believe, and more difficult for them to challengekwestionować, poddawać w wątpliwość even when facts contradict it. Propaganda is often based on choosing some very large but comfortable lie which is hard to challengekwestionować, poddawać w wątpliwość for social status or other reasons - and spreading this throughout a whole society.

Jocular lying, deceitkłamstwo, oszustwo for the purpose of humor, when the falsehoodfałsz, fałszywość, kłamstwo is generally understood, is often regarded as not immoral and is widely practiced by humorists and comedians.

Etiquette of lying
Etiquette is largelyw dużym stopniu, głownie, przeważnie concerned with questions of lying, blamingto blame: winić, obwiniać and hypocrisy - things often decriedto decry: umniejszać wartość in ethics but of great utilityużyteczność in society:

The moral reasons to tolerate lies have mostly to do with avoiding conflict. An ethical code will often specify when the truth is required, and when not. In courtroomscourtroom: sala sądowa, for instance, the adversarial processantagonizm and standard of evidence that appliesto apply: dotyczyć, nakładać restrictsto restrict: ograniczać, wyznaczać limit questions so that the need for a witness to lie is reduced - thusdlatego, a zatem the truth on the matter at handpod ręką is supposed to be more easily revealedto reveal: ujawniać, odsłaniać.

The need to sometimes lie is recognized in the term White Lie (or officious lie), where the lie is harmless, and there are circumstances where there is an expectation to be less than totally honest through necessity or pragmatism. Lies can be divided into classes - injuriousszkodliwy, krzywdzący or maliciouszłośliwy, officious, and jocoseżartobliwy, of which only the first class is serious (Catholicism classes the first as a mortal singrzech but also condemnsto condemn: potępiać, krytykować the others as venialwybaczalny).

There are some types of lie that are considered acceptable, desirable, or even mandatoryobowiązkowy, due toz powodu social conventionzwyczaj, konwenans. Types of conventional lie include:

1. use of euphemisms to avoid explicitbezpośredni, wyraźny mention of something distastefulprzykry;


2. insincerenieszczery enquiriesenquiry: zapytanie, informacja after the health of a person not well known;


3. assurance of good health in response to insincerenieszczery enquiry (enquirers are often most disconcertedto disconcert: wprawiać w zakłopotanie, niepokoic by anything other than the briefest possible positive response);


4. excuses to avoid or terminate an undesiredniepożądany social encounterspotkanie;


5. assurance that a social encounterspotkanie is desiredpożądany or has been pleasurableprzyjemny;


6. telling a dying person whatevercokolwiek, wszystko to co, co tylko they want to hear;


7. concealmentukrycie, ukrywanie, zatajenie of a breachpogwałcenie, naruszenie of taboozłamanie, naruszenie tematu tabu.

Most people engage in such conventional lying, and do not apply the usual moral disapproval of lying to such situations. Conventional lies are viewed as a lesser category of lie, similar to white lies. However, a minority of people view them as maliciouszłośliwy lies.

Paradox of lying
Lying is the subject of many paradoxes, the most famous one being known as the liar paradox, commonly expressed as "This sentence is a lie," or "This sentence is false." The so-calledtak zwany Epimenides paradox -- "All Cretans are liars," as stated by Epimenides the Cretan -- is a forerunnerprekursor of this, though its status as a paradox is disputedsporny. A class of relatedpokrewny, powiązany logic puzzleslogic puzzle: zagadka logiczna are known as knights and knavesknave: kanalia, in which the goalcel is to determineustalać, decydować who of a group of people is lying and who is telling the truth.

Much ethical dilemma is based on relatedpokrewny, powiązany ethical paradox on issuesissue: zagadnienie, sprawa, problem of lying. Some famous ones include the question of whether anyone, hiding refugeesrefugee: uchodźca from an oppressiveuciskający and racist government, might owe the truth to an officialwysoki urzędnik who comes asking where they are.

Psychology of lying
The capacity of hominids to lie is noted early and nearly universallypowszechnie, ogólnie in human development and language studies with Great Apes. One famous lie by the latter was when Koko the Gorilla, confronted by her handlershandler: treser zwierząt after a tantrumnapad złości, histeria in which she had literally dosłownie, bez przesadytornto tear: wyrywać, szarpać a steel sinkzlew out of its mooringsmooring: miejsce cumowania, kotwiczenia, signed in American Sign Language, "cat did it", pointing at her tinymały, drobny kittenkociak. It is unclear if this was a joke or a genuine attemptpróba at blamingto blame: winić, obwiniać her tinymały, drobny pet.

Evolutionary psychology is concerned with the theory of mind which people employ to simulate another's reaction to their story and determine if a lie will be believablewiarygodny. The most commonly citedcytowany, przytaczany milestonekamień milowy in the rising of this, what is known as Machiavellian intelligence, is at the human age of about four and a half years, when children begin to be able to lie convincinglyprzekonująco. Before this, they seem simply unable to comprehendpojmować that anyone doesn't see the same view of events that they do - and seem to assume that there is only one point of view - their own - that must be integrated into any given story.

Sociology and linguistics of lying
Lying and blamingto blame: winić, obwiniać are so basicpodstawowy to society that it is hard to formallyformalnie study them. George Lakoff, in criticizing some claims of George W. Bush made prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, notes that "Are they lies - or are they merelytylko, jedynie exaggerationsexxageration: wyolbrzymienie, przesada, misleadingwprowadzający w błąd, mylący statements, mistakes, rhetorical excessesexcess: nadmiar, nadwyżka and so on. Linguists study such matters. The most startlingzaskakujący, zadziwiający finding is that, in considering whether a statementwypowiedź, komunikat, stwierdzenie is a lie, the least important consideration for most people is whether it is true! The more important considerations are, Did he believe it? Did he intend to deceiveoszukiwać, wprowadzać w błąd? Was he trying to gain some advantage or to harm someone else? Is it a serious matter, or a trivial one? Is it "just" a matter of political rhetoric? Most people will grant that, even if the statementwypowiedź, komunikat, stwierdzenie happened to be false, if he believed it, wasn't trying to deceiveoszukiwać, wprowadzać w błąd, and was not trying to gain advantagezyskać przewagę or harm any one, then there was no lie. If it was a lie in the service ofw służbie a good cause, then it was a white lie. If it was based on faulty information, then it was an honest mistake. If it was just there for emphasis, then it was an exaggeration."

"These have been among the administration's defenses. The good cause: liberatingto liberate: wyzwalać, uwalniać, wyswobadzać Iraq. The faulty information: from the CIA. The emphasis: enthusiasm for a great cause. Even though there is evidence that the President and his advisers knew the information was false, they can deflect the use of the L-word. The falsehoodsfalsehood: kłamstwo have been revealedto reveal: ujawniać, odsłaniać and they, in themselves, do not matter much to most people."

The philosopher Leo Strauss, who had a major influence on many of the figures in the Project for the New American Century who dominated the administration during this period, stressed the necessity of lying in order to concealukrywać, zatajać a strategic position, or to aidpomagać, wspierać diplomacy. So did earlier figures in political philosophy from Niccolo Machiavelli to Plato's "nobleszlachetny, zacny lie".

It seems extremely unlikely that lies will ever be entirely eliminated from politics or diplomacy, just as they cannot be removed from the warfaredziałania wojenne, bitwa that these activities are, ultimatelyostatecznie, w końcu, supposed to help pre-empt.

Lies and trust
One reason that lying may persist as a strategy in social settings is that it is not the comparison of the facts against some abstract notionpojęcie, wyobrażenie of truth, but rather, the assessmentocena, szacunek of whether or not a betrayalzdrada, ujawnienie of trust has occurred, that determines the response to a lie.

In the case of the Iraq war, for instance, the fact that lies escalated a conflict may have made it a quite serious breachpogwałcenie, naruszenie of trust and betrayalzdrada, ujawnienie of those who would suffer in that conflict. However, anyone who accepts as true the assertiontwierdzenie, zapewnienie that the regimerządy, reżim in place was an inevitablenie do uniknięcia, nieuchronny threatgroźba, pogróżka to those who perishedto perish: zginąć fighting it, or whose lives are at riskto be at risk: być narażonym na ryzyko in the aftermathnastepstwa, skutki of the invasion, would be far less likely to consider escalating the conflict at the most convenient time to be any kind of betrayalzdrada, ujawnienie. The perspectiveperspektywa, pogląd of the common sensezdrowy rozsądek conservativekonserawtywny quite often relies onto rely on: polegać na, zależeć od this kind of assumptionprzypuszczenie, założenie of certaintypewność, pewnik. But if conflicts that are to be escalated are chosen due toz powodu some ideology, it is hard to see how this differs from simple might makes right logic.

Lies during childhood
Lying begins at an early age. Young children learn from experience that stating an untruth can avoid punishment for misdeedsmisdeed: przestępstwo, before they develop the theory of mind necessary to understand why it works. In this stage of development, children will sometimes tell fantastic and unbelievable lies, resembling the lie of Koko the Gorilla discussed above, because they lack the conceptualpojęciowy frameworkstruktura, rama, konstrukcja to judge whether a statementwypowiedź, komunikat, stwierdzenie is believablewiarygodny or even to understand the concept of believabilitywiarygodność.

When children first learn how lying works, naturally they lack the moral understanding to refrain frompowstrzymywać od doing it. It takes years of watching people lie and the results of lies to develop a proper understanding. Propensity to lie varies greatly between children, some doing so habituallynałogowo, notorycznie and others being habituallynałogowo, notorycznie honest. Habits in this regardpod tym względem are likely to change into early adulthood.

Some view children as on the whole more prone toskłonny do lie than adults. Others argue that the amount of lying stays the same, but adults lie about different things. Certainly adult lying tends to be more sophisticatedwyszukany, doświadczony. A lot of this judgement depends on whether one counts tactfultaktowny untruths, social insinceritynieszczerość, political rhetoric, and other standard adult behaviours as lying.

Lie detection
The question of whether lies can reliably be detectedto detect: wykrywać through non-verbal means is a subject of particular controversy.

1. Polygraph lie detector machines measure the physiological stress a subject enduresto endure: wytrzymywać, znosić in a number of measures while he or she gives statements or answers questions. Spikes in stress are said to indicatewskazywać, pokazywać lying behavior. The accuracydokładność, ścisłość, precyzyjność of this method is widely disputedsporny, and in several well-known cases it was proven to have been deceivedto deceive: oszukiwać, wprowadzać w błąd. Nonetheless, it remains in use in many areas.


2. Various truth drugs have been proposed and used anecdotallyanegtotycznie, though none is considered very reliable. The CIA attempted to find a universal "truth serum" in the MK-ULTRA project, but it was largelyw dużym stopniu, głownie, przeważnie a fiasco.


3. Facial microexpressions have been shown to reliably expose lying, according to Paul Ekman's Diogenes Project. Namely, a tinymały, drobny flashbłysk, mgnienie of a "distress" facial expression, though difficult to see with the untrained eye, may give away when a person is lying.

More recently, neuroscientists have found that lying activates completely different brain structures during MRI scans, which may lead to a more accurate (if impracticalniepraktyczny, bezsensowny) method of lie detection.

Url źródłowy: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie

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